Applied Cognitive Science and Education
Fall 2006

Predispositions, Complications, and Mechanisms (Chapter 13)

• Expectations, functional profile of strengths and weaknesses --> and the result is?
• Is identifying causal factors in a learning weakness always useful?
• Can one always correlate the relevant factors in an individual's weaknesses or strengths?
• Dangers due to inappropriate or insufficient testing.
• "Confusion between causes, complications, and secondary effects" (p 470)
• The need for a "multifactorial model" (p 471)

Predispositions (risk factors)

• genetic factors
  • this is constantly being reviewed and challenged
  • ADHD: problems in relating this to genetics because of "a lack of clear-cut diagnostic criteria". (p 472)
    • linkages between alcoholism in a parent and ADHD in a child
    • linkages between adopted individuals and ADHD (what were the biological parents like?)
  • dyslexia (familial patterns?)
  • mental disabilities associated with PKU (phenylketonuria) are lessened when individuals are placed on a low phenylalanine diet as infants
  • Down's syndrome (trisomy 21): mental retardation
  • Turner's syndrome (45,X): visual-spatial dysfunctions, at greater risk for problems with mathematics
  • Fragile X syndrome: in males leads to mental retardation, ADHD, and overactivity (females are less severely affected because they have two X chromosomes & it is unlikely that both have the Fragile X)
  • How does one separate genetic factors from environmental (including family and cultural) influences?
• perinatal health stresses
  • prenatal exposure to alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome) can create a "spectrum of difficulties"
  • prenatal exposure to crack cocaine
  • prenatal exposure to HIV infection and AIDS
  • "Present knowledge about perinatal stresses supports the need for a multifactorial model of causation and the continuing assessment of the accumulation and evolution of risk factors." (p 478)
• health and somatic factors
  • nutrition: dietary additives and food coloring may negatively impact some children/individuals
    • "the results obtained to date from a series of challenge studies have been uniform in suggesting that sugar ingestion does not adversely affect the learning and behavior . . ." (p 479)
  • effects of allergies: the problem is that most studies are not carefully controlled enough to warrant specific conclusions
    • however, allergies can make it more difficult to learn
      • both from the congestion and the side effects of the allergy medications
  • infections: infectious CNS diseases (e.g., meningitis, encephalitis)
    • these can cause serious problems with brain development and function
    • "tuberculous meningitis has been found to induce attention deficits as well as other forms of low-severity disability among 20% of survivors." (p 481)
    • pertussis encephalitis (caused by whooping cough) --> learning and attention dysfunctions
    • effects of recurrent ear infections: results are not conclusive re: their impact on the development of speech and language skills
  • sensory organ deficits: hearing, vision (eye movements, depth perception, color blindness)
  • toxins: All of the following (and other pollutants/contaminants in our environment) heavy metals, air pollution, cigarette smoke, low-level ionizing radiation, asbestos, polyhalogenated hydrocarbons, insecticides
    • lead levels and attention difficulties have been linked in some, but not all studies
    • all of the above can affect brain development, brain function, and function of all cells in the body
  • anemia: may lead to decreased alertness and cognitive performance
  • malnutrition: sets the stage for developmental problems and dysfunctions
    • "Problems with attention, language skills, overall intelligence, and behavior have been well documented." (p 485)
    • it is not known what the long-term effects may be and whether they can be reversed by better nutrition
  • physical maturation:
    • " Gross and Duke (1983) offer a compelling model in their studies comparing early- and late maturing children during adolescence." (p 485)
      • late-maturing males performed worse on education-related variables
      • late-maturing males were less likely to want to complete college
      • late-maturing males were "above average in intellectual ability and less often in the upper third of their class in terms of academic achievement." (p 485)
      • these distinctions were not seen for females
    • can influence body image and appearance, athletic ability, and social ability
  • trauma:
    • CNS trauma can influence all aspects of cognitive development
      • length of unconsciousness after head trauma may relate to later developmental problems
      • "penetrating brain injuries will primarily result in deficits related to that area of the brain that is damaged" (p 486)
      • "nonpenetrating head injuries can effect neurocognitive outcomes . . ." (p 486)
    • plasticity of the nervous system may overcome some of these insults, but can only go so far.
  • "However, years of research in many fields have demonstrated amply that logical and appealing explanations for phenomena often disintegrate under conditions of rigorous scientific scrutiny." (p 488)
• sociodemographic (environmental) influences
  • economic:  poverty vs. affluence
    • strong correlation between low socioeconomic level and hearing impairment (from recurring ear infections)
    • strong correlation between low socioeconomic level and "delayed acquisition of reading skill" (p 488)
    • maternal and paternal educational levels
    • multiple risk factors
    • affluence: weak family ties, inconsistent parental presence, easy access to cars, drugs, alcohol
    • affluence: expensive private schools may be very rigid in their high expectations
  • cultural values: "concepts of gender role, ethnic identification, and differences in dialect or language" (p 489)
    • stress due to differences compared to the 'majority'
    • differences in the importance that the different families put on athletic, academic (different areas), popularity, religious achievement/participation
  • community attitudes: expectations of their neighborhood
    • exposure to reading and books
    • certain employment expectations
    • atmosphere of accomplishment
    • peer influences
  • lifestyle: "passions of a particular era" (p 491)
    • negative effects of television watching (related to the amount and the content)
      • can result in understimulation cognitively
    • too little free time (too many programmed extracurricular activities)
• family life effects: what is the family life like?
  • domestic turmoil of differing causes can influence academic and cognitive development because of stresses at home
  • competition between and among siblings
  • "Academic performance may be used as a weapon by boys or girls who are angry at their parents." (p 492)
• critical life events: losses, separations, divorce, death
  • these can also have positive effects on cognitive development (parent-infant bonding)
  • the adaptability of the individual to the negative or positive event
  • the resiliency of the individual to withstand the stressor and/or new experiences
  • It is also possible that problems at home may have little to do with academic performance at school.
• issues of behavior and personality
  • innate temperament can have a great influence on resiliency and "recuperative strength in the face of adversity"
  • coping behavior
  • e.g., activity level, adaptability, threshold of responsiveness, intensity of reaction, mood, distractibility, attention
  • Carey found that "certain temperamental patterns predispose a child to vulnerability." (p 494)
    • irregular sleep and feeding routines, reluctance to try new foods, problems adjusting to new routines, people, and situations
  • link between temperament and academic performance (Carey, 1985)
  • How much of the behavior is caused by temperament vs. underlying attention problems?
  • It is important to consider the "unique array of temperamental traits and how they may either ameliorate" or exaggerate predisposing developmental dysfunctions. (p 495)
• educational impacts: school performance and success impacts educational success
  • e.g., classroom embarrassment in presence of peers
  • overly critical teacher or uncaring teacher
  • Attitudes such as, "I don't believe in learning disabilities" can be negatively pervasive in the school community.

Complications (risk factors): commonly encountered complications which may aggravate learning disorders

• Loss of motivation: learning goals, performance goals, personal goals
  • expectations of specific goals can lead to loss of motivation
  • amount of effort related to attainment of the goal
  • based on perceived relevancy to other goals
  • based on whether successful attainment of the goal is possible
  • importance of attaining success in achieving one's goals
  • patterns of helplessness ("nonpersistence, negative expectations, etc." p 499)
  • "Children confront specific tasks, challenges, or courses in school by superimposing their own beliefs, rules, and representations about how competent they are, how difficult tasks are for them, what will determine their success or failure, how much fun or torture will be involved in the effort, and how valued the ultimate goal seems." (p 499)
  • What does a teacher mean when she says that the individual is not properly motivated?  What aspect of motivation is involved?  Does one ever explore that or know?
• Low self-esteem: individuals "who are achieving mastery in no area, those with no recent triumphs, are very much at risk." (p 500)
  • identification of strengths and demystifying weaknesses are essential to combating low self-esteem
• Maladaptive face-saving strategies
  • quitting: avoiding the task or situation or labeling it as boring - to save face
  • cheating: to deal with the threat of failure]
  • controlling: bossing others around
  • aggression: toward others or objects in the environment as a means of control
  • regressing: reverting to behaviors of a younger child to escape responsibilities
  • withdrawing: avoiding any environment or person who may give them trouble
• Somatic complications: lowered threshold for aches and pains, school phobic stomach aches and headaches
  • avoidance of using school restrooms (constipation)
  • lack of control of bladder during school time (enuresis)
  • eating problems
  • asthma
• Depression: "is a common psychiatric complication of developmental dysfunction." (p 504) 10-20% of LD children have significant depression (Stevenson and Romney, 1984)
  • symptoms of depression in children can be very different from those of adult depression
• Suicidal behavior: "must be considered as the ultimate threat and the supreme justification for early identification and intervention." (p 506)
• Severe aggression and delinquency
• Teenage pregnancy
• Undeveloped talent

Physiological mechanisms underlying dysfunction

• Cerebral dominance:
  • left hemisphere: language, sequential ordering, finger recognition, verbal mediation of tasks
  • right hemisphere: interpretation of visual-spatial environment, integration of visual-motor tasks, visual memory, color discrimination, music
  • the cooperation between the 2 hemispheres is critical for all of the above-listed left hemisphere and right hemisphere tendencies
  • Is dyslexia related to cerebral dominance problems?  It is not clear.
• Slow processing and production:
  • rate of processing
  • rate of perceiving
  • rate of producing
  • "Because these children cannot operate at an adequate rate, they may miss a great deal of input." (p 514)
• Neuropsychological syndromes?
  • left parietal problems characteristics: right-left disorientation, bilateral finger agnosia, writing disability, problems with math
  • frontal lobe syndrome: reduced ability to plan, make predictions, working memory, executive functioning, impulsiveness
  • Asperger's syndrome: "congenital inability to relate emotionally to others" (p 515)
  • Rourke's nonverbal learning disabilities syndrome: problems with functioning of the right vs. left hemisphere systems
  • Tourette's disorder: multiple motor tics, obsessive-compulsive disorder, ADD/ADHD
  •